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People page 2; continued

Burials in RI1000 indicate common genetic heritage with Europeans.

No other Indian Tribe shows the trait of indication. There are few Native American individuals, if any, elsewhere who show the trait; certainly not anywhere near that concentration. If it should prove that there are, indeed, some individuals with lesions, then it is possible that they might be within the territories of Narragansett dispersion prior and post 1676. What is as significant is the high concentration in RI1000 - 17 of 59 individuals, and a single chance discovery in a distant (10 miles) cemetery.  And a part of the discovery was that one of the victims was but three years old - he must have been born with it to develop a lesion on a bone.  Medical practitioners would be dumbfounded to observe, even in this day an Amerind child surviving three years with TB!  The oldest victim had been approximately 45 years old which would make his birth-date at near 1615, five years before the arrival of the Plymouth settlers and a year or so before the epochal epidemic of that period.

Europeans commonly show this and a number of other secondary traits of TB subversion (most of which occur in soft tissue only and are undetectable on skeletons). This appearance and high proportion would not be unusual in any European or Old world cemetery - neither this form of cemetery nor the trait is evident elsewhere in the Americas.

White skin. Verrazano said they were "light to olive"; Williams said specifically that while they had some color from sun and "annoyntings" they were born white.

Hair: Verrazano remarked that their hair was "flowing" (as translated from Spanish.). It is difficult in absence of more detail precisely what this meant. What is important is that this was in comparison with others along the coast. I had suspected that perhaps it meant "curly" and was only able to resolve it by factors which will appear below. SSRider (observing through a microscope) remarked that Narragansett hair was black, "as all Indian women." What became apparent is that the term "flowing" possibly did mean curly with implications of a finer texture which enables the hair to curl. At this late date with very few "pure blood " Narragansetts remaining, there is not a sufficient sampling for sound scientific observation, but see below for two examples of it. The hair, in some way, was sufficiently different to attract remark, thus indicating a variance in genetic makeup. I have been unable to certainly identify facial hair in Narragansetts or Wampanoags, but there are some historical suggestions that it did occur. One respected historian, a former (modern) Massachusetts legislator and legal representative of the Wampanoag tribe is emphatic that Massasoit (1620) had been bearded. It seems common among Wampanoag descendants today. Gosnall in 1602 (?) observed a practice of using artificial beards among the natives that were supposedly symptomatic of virility. A strong inference in the early records of the Plymouth Colony indicates that some of the Indians seen were bearded. By the middle of the nineteenth century, beards were thought typical of Narragansetts.  References to the Wampanoags, we must recall, were of the western groupings of the tribe, adjacent to Narragansett Bay, as the eastern sectors were all decimated and mainly occupied by the incoming settlers.  While there were some variances between those dwelling on opposite sides of the Bay, the must, after all likely were more oriented to the waterway and well aware of each other. (This slight variance exists today among Rhode Islanders.)

Indian/Mongolian hair is universally coarse and straight. It is not always black. In fact, on the reservations, the more typical color is a very dark brunette, often with lighter brown highlights which in strong backlight makes the hair appear lighter than it is - to "auburn" color, which is the way Gudrid Thorbjornsdottir described it in one case. Yet, Sidney Smith Rider, observing Princess Weunkuesh' hair through a microscope remarked that "-- it was black, as all Indian women's hair was--(emphasis added).. Indian hair is always coarse and straight which among the women precludes many of the Caucasian types of coiffure. Facial hair on men is universally nearly non-existent, being very "wispy" if it occurs at all. Many simply pluck out the few strands. I am not sure of the significance of jet-black hair when it does occur. Mixed descendants of the Conquistadors, at least in the north, very commonly have straight, coarse, and jet-black hair but occasionally of finer texture. Mexican males are often heavily bearded, but just as often with very sparse beards.

European hair is commonly of much finer texture than Native American and is, of course, of many shades and variations. The observation seems that not only in America but in India proper and in the Far East, genetic intermixture results commonly with jet-black hair but with finer texture being the retained factor. Lighter color seems the initial casualty of such intermarriage. A few generations and it is gone, jet black predominating. But many of the Native Americans in the east today are quite light in hair color. For an example of this see below.

Stature: Verrazano remarked that they were a very tall race - taller than previously contacted Indians and notably taller than his own crewmembers, who were French. This is remarkable for two reasons: it shows descent from tall forebears and it also is a signal of descent from intermarriage. Children of mixed unions are typically taller than their parents. At least one exhumed skeleton of a Narragansett chieftain stood 6'2" - the same height as a skeleton of a person exhumed in Greenland and thought to be that of Leif Erickson himself; very tall – considered gigantic in his day.

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I have no insight as to average heights of American Indians nationwide, but the several tribes here in Arizona are not small - perhaps on average only slightly smaller than Caucasians. Some are quite tall but they also share better nutrition with Caucasians of today, which factor is in large part responsible for larger stature. Photographs of Arizona Indians of a century ago show they were smaller at that time – Apaches, Navajo and Pima averaged 5’5". Historical notes indicate many as of small stature. Indians of northern Mexico called "Yaquis" seem to be a diminutive race - much smaller than intermarried descendants.  So also, I am told, are the Amerinds of Guatemala and Nicaragua. (However, at least one tribe resident near Tierra del Fuegio were gigantic by anyone's standards.) 

The average European until modern nutrition practices developed was smaller than today. Preserved armor from medieval days shows most as quite small on average. I gather that the average Englishman until recently was but 5’3". Below deck headroom in replica vessels from original plans make no account of sizable individuals - headroom being something like 5' feet or so. The average Norseman of the day was something larger - perhaps averaging 5'6". Danish Tollund man (Danish bog exhumation) was something like 5'5".

Muscular development: Verrazano remarked on the fact that they had "muscular" physiques and it must be reminded that again he is comparing them with earlier observations southward.

The comparison is significant because generally "Indians" are not commonly built that way - some historians describing them as "more rounded".  Northern Europeans are more muscular in build than most races. The "Nordic" ideal is quite muscular.

Facial features: GV again described their facial features as "fine"  (see below).

It is a rare Native American that can be so described. Males often in age developing a sort of weathered, craggy appearance.   Northern Europeans and a high proportion of southern as well are typically fine featured with the trait being more common towards the North.

    Their burial practices as described in RI1000 are unique and highly significant. "Nearly all" were buried in flexed (fetal) positions on right sides and with heads pointed towards SW, as were at least two of the the cemeteries. This indicates that they were not Christian, but did have a strong religious or social contract among themselves.  {Oct.2000 from RW "Keys--".  The southwest direction was revered by Narragansetts.  Their legends held that from that direction corn had originated and was transported to them by crows.  The mildest winds seem to originate in that direction as well and for those reasons they held that it was to there that their souls would travel after death if in grace and otherwise doomed to wander forever.  They had a word for soul - "Cowwe'wonk" and a class of priests.  They had a concept of a single omnipotent God who oversaw  a number of lesser gods which idea is very close to Viking belief.  

Europeans (Christian) almost always were buried supine with arms at sides or folded at abdomen or chest. (Compare Greenland Christian burials.) At least two Pagan Scandinavian burials had bodies placed in the identical position as in RI1000 and also were oriented SW. In some aspects of Scandinavian medieval legends, SW direction seems to have had some significance – a void (vast Atlantic?) or mysterious district. The grave goods of the two indicate that they were warriors of some recognized social stature.

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The cemetery RI1000 was of a neat and orderly layout and unique in its geometry, being long and narrow with burials arranged four abreast (with 2 or 3 isolated at remote places – perhaps unbelievers, Christian converts, or pariahs). Thus, its geometric regularity is not in imitation of the invaders, but their own. It is unknown how deep the original graves had been excavated, but the history of the plot and the fact that it was discovered by a bulldozer operator indicated that the graves were relatively deep – at least 4 feet. There are records of burial elsewhere of a "Princess" who was buried in an elaborate grave to a depth of 8 feet and records also indicate another "Queen" who had been buried 12 feet deep!  A curious observation might be surmised in that Viking ships were compartmented into "rooms" - the spaces between the ribs in which normally 4 to 6 persons would reside at sea with two oars to the "room".  The cemetery configuration recalls this peculiarity which is something that might well be a cultural holdover.  (There are ship-shaped cairns, possibly burials, extant from olden times quite near or even possibly within Narragansett territory.)

Indians generally were not appreciative of orderly arrangement in nature although it does appear in their art. I am not aware of any other burial ground elsewhere that might be called a cemetery,  Cemeteries, dwelling structures and village arrangements elsewhere were more often haphazard and irregular. Amerinds seem to have preferred the round rather than square. Their fortifications were more commonly circular. Burials were typified by shallow excavations or even none (earth covering) in progressively developing mounds, either in height or length (snakelike). Elsewhere sometimes "burials" were in trees or scaffolds. It might be imagined that this was the result of the difficulties of digging in absence of steel or iron shovels. Narragansetts in 1660 did have these utensils, but it remains a mystery explicable by anthropology alone as to origins of the culture wide impulse to bury so deeply, so orderly and elaborately, and with such wealth of grave goods.

European cemeteries are typically geometrically arranged in forms to suit lands adjacent to churches – square to rectangular; bodies lain supine with arms at sides or clasped at abdomen or chest. Depth at ideal is or should be 6 feet, often shallower and seldom deeper. Burials in Scandinavia inclusive of Iceland, seem often to have been, before Christianity, rather haphazard in layout with individual graves outlined and even cairned in boat shaped form. The Christian cemetery at Bratahlid in Greenland has the bodies in supine position but also in a long and narrow cemetery configuration, while not yet in so orderly a geometry as RI1000. Burials of powerful personages in pagan times were elaborate, often interred aboard with the whole ship buried and all possessions – even with slain servants and horses.

Grave goods from RI1000 and also literary records show that copper for ornament was extensive predominantly among Narragansetts but to some degree Wampanoags as well. Moreover, records of an early explorer of the coast indicate that the natives of Marthas Vineyard stated that this was not all free found copper but some, at least, was excavated from pits which hints at knowledge of refining of ores. Free found copper was common in the district and at least one copper mine of colonial workings and possibly earlier was at a place called Somers in Connecticut – the entire Connecticut River Valley well within reasonable trade range.

Eastern Amerinds all used copper to some degree but not to as high a refinement or prevalence as Narragansetts. One grave exhumation of a "Princess" showed her as wearing leather lined copper mocassins. A Wampanoag warrior was buried just a short distance from Narragansett Bay waters with so much copper that he was said to have been entirely encased in it (not true, but still sufficient to be termed plentiful).  {Oct.2000.  Jamestown, Virgina, founded in 1608archives indicate copper and being a major commodity in trade with the Indians of that area, thus demonstrating that it must have been a rarity among the natives at that distance of 300 miles.}   Natives of Mexico and the western districts all used metals including silver and gold (and the gem turqoise).

European metal extraction was of a high order with methods of refinement extant.

The hierarchal social structure has been remarked above and existed in the trait that land use was by social groupings – that is, that commoners had to make arrangements for payment of some sort if game was pursued into adjacent lands of a noble or chieftain not their own.

This is something unusual in normal Indian behavior. Of course, one did have to be careful in intruding onto alien lands, especially if a hostile group. But here we speak of divisions within a tribe itself.

In medieval times, land use in Europe was rigidly regulated by property ownership originally regulated by war.

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Along the same lines is Narragansett custom of commoners being executed by leaders or agents of leaders and that they accepted this "docily".

Shades of history! If this custom is not unique compared to other Indians, it is difficult to imagine what is. This is so unusual that by remark alone it should demonstrate kindredship with Europeans. Elsewhere, this seems to have been unheard of. Even Montezuma in Mexico, leader of an immense tribe, was countered, disputed and eventually slain by his own people. Indian participants in war here in the west stated flatly that they did not even have to fight if they did not feel the impulse, that military leaders could not order anyone to fight.

In Europe, of course, the only social organization was hierarchal. Autocratic government was common – the rule, either of a military leader or a church. Executions were common and popular diversions. Europeans seem to have been inured and fatalistic to executions. The facial expression on Tollund man, who had been ritually executed, is a subject or remark to those who have seen it as of calm resignation, if not willing acceptance.

Narragansetts took heads as trophies and, according to RW, did so with great dexterity "—even with a sorrye knife". However, it does not seem to have been a prevalent custom, some chieftains - perhaps the female ones - omitting the practice altogether.

This seems to have been an unusual custom among other Amerinds. Historians do say that it occurred in some tribes, but in my research I felt that this may sometimes have been a reference back to Narragansetts.  It did occur elsewhere, if rarely, however. Moderns might be surprised that scalping (taking of scalp hair) is said to have been originated by English colonists who encouraged the practice for the paying of bounties rather than dealing with any number of heads.

Until quite recent times, the taking of heads and displaying them trophy-like was common among Europeans, after all, the guillotine was still in active use so late as the 1930's.  Most medieval cities and towns had places of execution and portions of walls and pikes thereon for the display of heads and even bodies. This was common practice among the English and Dutch colonials and, in fact, was a contributing irritation to the Indians which led to King Phillip’s War. A popular matron chieftain of Wampanoags had her severed head on display for some time at Plymouth, at sight of which her relatives were said to have demonstrated "much rue", as we might well expect. It would seem that the habit may have originated in sword wielding societies. Despite the apparent barbarity of the practice, it allies Narragansetts more closely with Europeans than with Amerinds.

The southwest orientation of both bodies and cemetery seems to have significance. Narragansetts revered crows and had a legend that the origins of their (prized) corn  was from the southwest (correctly) and had been brought to them in ancient times by crows (maybe). There seem to be other indications that the SW direction had importance to them.

The use of animals/birds/plants as symbols of reverence or religion was common among humans for eons worldwide.

Ravens, larger but otherwise similar birds, were a revered symbol among Vikings, which makes for in interesting coincidence. The SW direction also seems to have had significance to the Norse, perhaps by reason of that direction, the wide Atlantic, being a nautical void in their experience. Interesting coincidence.

Narragansetts practiced a refined division of labor among themselves with specialists in certain tasks such as one making arrow shafts and another the points (Narragansett arrowheads are always small – perhaps typically so). This division of labor was so defined that they had a class of persons similar to what we call "bankers". Narragansetts were the primary manufacturers of Wampum (correctly "Wampumpeague") which was a respected medium of exchange for over 600 miles distant. This social class – not the tribe – both manufactured and regulated with some standardization this medium which was made from shells extracted from Narragansett Bay. It was so refined as to have had for a time rates of exchange with English money. It had standardized widths and perhaps lengths as well, but in barter it could be, and was, cut to varied lengths. Like their boats it was made with "great artifice" and consisted of black and white shell fragments. (For an example, see Ninegret's portrait.)  This Narragansett wampum may have actually been quite unique among Amerinds, 

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Division of labor to this degree was unusual in Amerind society elsewhere. Most Indian cultures aimed rather at self reliance by the individual, Apaches, for example were known to have made all their own mocassins (Narragansett word, by the way). In later history and elsewhere wampum was made from beads of many colors, also quite decorous, but the beads were mainly of glass and from European sources. (As a toolmaker, this writer is intrigued by the technical challenge of drilling of numerous small holes in the shell material - and as an amateur seaman, the challenge of knotting the strands in such a way as to permit cutting the whole without disintegrating the parts. And as a former denizen of surface and submerged Narragansett Bay, it is here offered that the black shells were from a very common snail resident in huge numbers on the black mud of the Bay. Most historians claim the black was from a part of the hard shell clam called, locally, "quahogs", but I have never seen a quahog that had other than a very thin and purple section of the interior of the shell. Not black at all or thick enough for the purpose.)

The banking class of Europe was well defined from times past, as was the division of labor. Money was of precious metal and gems and the refinement of metals pretty well advanced, at least so far as gold, silver, lead, copper, iron and others were concerned. This comparison is a strong indicator of a certain degree of Narragansett holdover of social custom, if not technical skill, from an archaic past.  Vikings were avid traders, certainly the most widely traveled, and used most, but not all, coinage other than their own, they were so refined in commercial concepts that this was as notable a reputation for them as their military prowess had been.

Narragansetts practiced the custom of burning the possessions of members who had died of disease, and only those victims of sickness. Grave goods show that this was not universally done but only when severe disease was suspected. This seems to infer some understanding of germ theory or at least transmission of disease through impersonal contact which is true of both TB and Smallpox. Williams described it and also felt that it may have been a contributory factor in their survival. "This (burning) the other Indians about us approve of as good, and with their sachems would appoint the like: and because the plague hath not reigned at Nanohigganset (Narragansett) as at other places about them, they attribute to this custom there used."

Many other Indian interments elsewhere had evidence of grave goods, mostly of personal possessions. They did not seem to have any awareness of disease transmission as evidenced by their ready acceptance of contaminated blankets and implements. Apaches burnt all possessions of all the dead and went to the extreme of consciously "forgetting" everything about the person including the name. It was a very decisive taboo, causing some embarrassment to anyone not knowing that the person had died. While specific to Apaches, this is latter is likely more symptomatic of typical Amerind behavior than otherwise.

Europeans were well aware of disease transmissions and were sometimes in the habit of slaying survivors of shipwrecks in dread of contagion – especially dwellers upon islands. English colonials often gave blankets of deceased from diseases to Indians in hopes of increasing their death rate. Shipping (of Europe) originating in ports infested was constrained, quarantined or forced away.

Williams: " In cases of sickness, their misery appears, for they have not a raisin, nor a current, nor fruit, nor spice, nor any comfort more than their corn and water, wanting all means of recovery or present refreshing. I have been constrained beyond my power to refresh them, and I believe to save many from death. The visit of friends was all their refreshment under such conditions; and their visits did not occur when a disease was thought infectious. Then all forsake them and fly. I have often seen a poor house left alone in the wild woods, all being fled." SSRider comments, " They had actually no knowledge of any remedial agents in case of sickness". Verrazano attended a funeral where much grief was demonstrated and remarked that their dirges sounded "Sicilian". They were especially bereft if the victim was a child.

Amerinds elsewhere were in the widespread belief of the efficacy of varied natural herbs and balms, so much so that the term "Indian Snake Oil" has entered the vernacular. Many of these treatments were impotent of course, but it might be supposed that just as many were effective, since most medicines until recently had natural bases. This is a most striking contrast in cultural belief within such a small territory.

By medieval times European medicine seems to have developed to a suspicion of natural remedies that remained until quite recent times – in fact, perhaps until American Native beliefs gradually supplanted it. Doubtless there was considerable variance all through Europe, but by good fortune, the Arab chronicler Ahmed ibn Fadlan in 922 remarked and described the identical attitude among a group of Vikings along the Volga. His description of the isolation and resultant funeral of the leader is well known, but the foregoing events and disease which killed him less so. Viking belief was known to be stoic in the face of death from any cause. Many modern Scandinavians in my experience seem to share this attitude, with the sole exception of hearty doses of Cod Liver Oil for myriad ailments. The Vinland Sagas give a rather long and comprehensive tale of the death of Thorstein Erickson at the Western Settlement with Gudrid in attendance. No succor was attempted to the unfortunate Thorstein dying of some pestilence – indeed, he seems to have been "helped along" by the surviving Thorstein the Black with no attempted hindrance by the observing Gudrid.

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The status of Narragansett women was high. There was a high moral standard among them and both Williams and Verrazano record this. Women could become chieftains in their own right. In unconscious humor Williams recorded that women tended most of the fields (except tobacco) and that the men aided them "-- even when they did not have to."! A captive of a Narragansett Sachem during King Phillips war (a Mrs. Rowlandson) said much the same and stated that in her several month’s captivity she had been deprived but never molested, even by her captor.

Elsewhere there seems to have been varied attitudes by Amerinds towards women but with general respect - usually strictly separated. It was highly unusual for Indians elsewhere to have female chieftains and Narragasnetts had quite a number of them. Apache behavior was notable in attention to women’s prerogatives, even conducting feminine puberty ceremonies while actively and closely pursued by enemies.  I have not discovered any female chieftains among other tribes anywhere.

European attitudes also varied but a low social order did exist in some or even most districts with the notable exception of Viking women, who, by comparison also could become leaders in their own right. This social trait is most unusual elsewhere in Europe. As servants European women often, if not generally, led a hard life. American colonial women especially had difficult times and high death rates, what with hard labor and frequent childbirth, a great number of colonial males recorded to have gone through series of three and more wives. Women pioneers only occasionally lived to old age in the early days. But Scandinavian attitudes in Europe were diverse from others. The role of women was notably favorable – note the life of Gudrid Thorbjornsdottir. In fact, this cultural attitude compares closely, if not exactly, with Narragansett behavior.

Along with their banking mentality, Narragansetts could count to as high as 100,000, and apparently higher and Williams, who traded with them daily, said that many or most could do it. He also noted that they were difficult to bargain with by being shrewd traders, "—penurious to a degree. Will beat out all markets to save ---"

This high count is a highly unusual trait. 200 years later it was found that Apaches could count to as high as 10,000 and that was thought quite remarkable.

In fact, very likely there were few in Europe who could do this. The ability was restricted to elites in the churches and Universities. It is not so much a question of latent abilities, as we can see that the Maya calculated to much higher figures for astronomical dating but more from practical day to day usage where the numbers are of some use. With Narragansetts they had to count items for manufacture of wampumpeague and also some consideration of other populaces for the regulation thereof.  But, Williams (of Narragansetts); "Let it be considered whether traditions of ancient forefathers, or nature hath taught them Europe’s arithmeticke."

Narragansetts were well armed (even with muskets in 1635) and carried their arms habitually. They were known to have been militarily capable, yet were not overly belligerent in their social affairs nor even alien contacts. Note their propensity for welcoming of strangers remarked by both RW and GV. RW accompanied a party of over 200 on a trip to Hartford, CT through enemy territory, yet said that there was no trouble and at no time in his lengthy association did he have occasion to fear for his life or safety. RW: "I have upon occasion traveled many a score, nay, many the hundredth mile amongst them, without need for a stick or staff, for any appearance of danger among them; yet it is a rule among them that it is not good for a man to travel without a weapon nor alone." And, also RW: "I have known them to sleep outdoors that their guests (invited and otherwise) might be sheltered."

This philosophy among other Amerinds must be quite the variable depending to a degree on the status of a group and its association with neighbors. Indian warfare, however, was never outright genocidal although treatment of prisoners of war was often severe.

Strange to say, this attitude is something held in common with archaic Vikings and is something that might be expected among descendents of stable male dominated society. Medieval writers often remarked on the ease and safety of travel in Scandinavia in olden days. One remarked that even the poorest average person would share his last crust of bread with visitors. Yet Vikings also were habitually armed to the teeth; never without a knife and usually with sword and shield abroad.  An insight to Viking custom is  preserved in Scots traditional dress – cape over shoulder and with always the dirk in the stocking. 

Interestingly, Narragansetts also utilized a stylistically worn cape, a habit not known elsewhere among Amerinds. See the painting of Ninegret where the cape seems to have been deliberately brought part way forward to show it.  Viking capes were a standard item of dress, not only present but with a stylized manner of wear - men a short cape clasped at the right shoulder and women with a longer, ankle length cape clasped with a characteristic double brooch at the neck.  These were a uniform dress for Vikings, as was the simpler one for the Narragansetts..  

As noted above, Narragansetts were nautical to a fault. Their vessels were built with "great artifice" (GV) and were so large as to hold 24 persons. Rowing or paddling was the more common means of locomotion but RW says that sometimes makeshift sails were used. GV says the crew rowed or paddled in synchronal mode "without using their backs". RW was impressed with their seamanship and says they traveled habitually well out of sight of land and to great distances. Their influence extended to at least Nantucket to the east and Connecticut River to the west and as far out as Long Island where on at least one occasion a Narragansett Chieftain conducted a raid with strikingly similar overtones to the commonly described Viking raids in Europe.

This nautical ability was shared by the Northwest Pacific Coast Indians also and could well be something that developed independently by residence of a huge, sheltered waterway. Yet, the ability and tendency seems unusual among those we have always viewed as eastern forest dwellers in general and Algonquins in particular.

Viking seamanship needs no further elaboration here, yet it must be remarked that the propensity for the sea becomes ingrained in populations and is something that would be expected to be transmitted to descendents. Not noted is that the famous Viking "longships" were a development of a dugout form of craft. They gradually added freeboards for use in rougher waters and eventually built them all this way. Indeed, the presence of a top strake (highest side plank), by being of another color or type of wood is even today recognized as both an aggressive attitude by captain or crew by near everyone and is symptomatic of Vikings in particular.

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Narragansetts practiced systematic clearing by fire of large areas of forest for clearings. This implies a close social organization and a high degree of scientific application. It is not an easy task in that area of dense forest and requires attention to times and conditions of performance. The forest must not be too dry and apparently it was done twice during the year, the second of which is still known in New England as "Indian Summer". This is a period in October/November when temperatures rise to summer heights and the air becomes "smoky", but in those days it was smokier yet from the extensive fires. They were otherwise quite skilled in using fire as RW informs that they used fire to hollow their finely crafted vessels and also to hollow in one case a split log sarcophagus which had metalic (AD1660) hinges. RW says that individuals would take themselves off into the forest and construct a vessel in ten or twelve days. The preferred wood was Chestnut.  At contact the forest growth must have been enormous, with numerous great trees of many species, whereas today the "second" growth is still moderately high but extremely thick, predominantly with maple and pine, frequently interspersed by oak.

Amerinds elsewhere may have used fire to this extent but I have been unable to discover other instances of it except that it seems peculiar to Algonquins and New England in particular. It is a measure of high advancement, strict social order and must have originated at a time when iron tools were unavailable. Stone axes would not be efficient enough for extensive clearing of this sort.

I am unaware of extensive use of fire to this degree in Europe. In medieval times much of the forest was already cut for heat and manufacture - and fire was more feared than otherwise. The trait among the Narragansetts thus does not appear as a holdover but something original resulting from their strictly organized society. However, it must be remarked that the Vikings who did travel to Vinland were mostly born and raised in Greenland and Iceland where tree cover was nil or very sparse. This might be a reason why Narragansetts seem to have been less comfortable under the forest canopy when other eastern groups demonstrably favored forest cover.  Clearings around residences and villages have defensive advantages as well as protection from fire. The following English colonists were great hewers of trees, considered them "weeds" and felt that the forest had been made to be chopped down.  They always cleared the environs of their homesites, partly from military considerations but also from fear of fire. England had been cleared by the Romans, partly to deprive the natives of the day of cover. Later Britons consumed great quantities of such regrowth as existed for heat and also to manufacture glass.

RW:            "The very Indian boys can give

                                  To many stars their name,

                        And know their course, and therein doe

                                 Excell the English tame."

This implies a high order of interest and culture wide observation.

{Oct2000:  Careful reading od Williams" "Keys---" finds this most remarkable passage.  "Mosk" or "Pauku'nawaw" the great Beare, or Charles Waine, which words Mosk, or Pauku'nawaw signifies a Beare, which is so much the more observable, because, in most languages that signe or Constellation is called the Beare"

This is a most phenomenal report.  Were we to accept it without reservation it could well be as positive an indicator of past European contact as anything.  It might be one thing that they had a defined constellation that they identified as a bear, it would be noteworthy if it were in the same sector of the sky.  But to find, as the quote seems to have it, that it was the very same pattern of stars brings the mathematical possibilities to near the impossible - they must have gotten this from Europe!  It would not seem that they could have gotten it from the English settlers, for Williams - and presumable his compatriots - referred to it as "Charles Waine and not as a bear.}

Doubtless Amerinds elsewhere also observed the heavens closely, but if they advanced the habit to the degree of naming stars or constellations, I have been unable to discover.  It seems probable in the case of Maya in Central America.

Europeans, of course, had an established science of astronomy from "Araby" and from ancient times and those whose livelyhood kept them outdoors for extended periods were close observers of the heavens. The constellations are ancient and so observing them could have been a holdover – especially the naming of the stars. I have attempted to find some of these in RW "Keys" but this is not so comprehensive a work as to cover the entire language.  Apparently RW did not include these individual names, which, in my opinion, is regrettable.

Narragansett dwelling styles held remarkable similarities to Viking medieval styles. Narragansett homes were structured from bent saplings covered with woven mats, about 15 feet square, transportable and moved quickly to escape insects or to be near fields and so forth. These small dwellings were occupied by many, GV says as many as 28 and RW says he had often seen two families residing in one "lovingly". (This would infer extreme danger of disease transmission, especially of Smallpox and TB.  The survival rate indicates considerable immunity.) But the ruling class lived in extended families in an entirely different type of structure, a larger type of house called, as in Viking society "long-house".  There were numerous "villages" interspersed all throughout Narragansett territory.

Amerinds elsewhere did not practice the centralized type of dwelling as a long-house. Usually the norm was one family to a structure – hogan, wickiup, or tepee.  Northwest tribes lived in plank houses. Southwest Indians sometimes in elaborate earthen enclaves - in Mexico even frescoed stone structures. Some primitive tribes simply lived in lean-tos or some haphazard arrangement of branches or brush. When Amerinds elsewhere congregated, it was usually in response to weather or hunting conditions. The huge concentration at the Little Big Horn in 1876 was atypical in size and pan-tribal participation and was formed there temporarily by reason of favorable hunting - at that time - and US military pressure. Dispersal of population was often forced by hunter/gatherer societies necessary for game accessibility.

Viking lifestyle was notably similar to the above. The houses were more advanced and permanent but, in the excavated medieval Hedeby in Denmark and York in England,  were of wattle and daub construction and so small they also must have been pretty crowded. But Viking society also had their leader class residing in long-houses with large extended families. This is a striking similarity of lifestyles.

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Narragansetts were skilled farmers as were, indeed, a rather large belt of Amerinds west and south of their general district. Their skill at farming of crops was superior to that of the incoming Europeans whose own skill was in animal husbandry – near absent in the main in the New World.

Not many are aware of the advanced state of agriculture in this district of America. Iroquois and Huron in particular were outstanding and stored surplus grains in huge underground pits. The Plymouth settlers in their explorations of Cape Cod found the same situation but with smaller pits, apparently. These pits had been abandoned, in the main, because of the drastic drop in population and were actually the prime reason for the survival of the colony by reason of food recovery from these Amerind caches. (Interestingly, while excavating these they also found a burial, the occupants of which were a boy and a man who had had blond hair.) The Amerinds, judging from contemporary illustrations, formed their fields in regular geometry and tended them carefully. Narragansett women were responsible for tending these crops but were aided by the men-folk as well. The situation became a bone of contention between the Pequots and Connecticut colonists by reason of the colonist’ cattle and horses invading the unfenced Indian fields, which problem the colonists resolved by declaring war, apparently. It does not seem that agriculture to this degree of advancement existed in northern New England or in the South where the natives were more typical of our view of woodland hunter/gatherers.  But Williams: "'Netasu'og', Cattell.  Obs. This name the Indians give to tame beasts, yea, and Birds also which they keepe tame about their houses."  This does not sound like the familiar, deerskin clad people of Hiawatha fame. 

European agriculture was advanced but with numerous small land holdings or fiefs, usually under control of higher social classes to whom the farmer was in thrall one way or another. It was not all that different from the Amerind practices in the district but did have the significant difference of lack of animal husbandry in other sectors than New England in the New World. This is important to this study as the domestication of cattle (bovine or other ruminants) has great bearing on the development of tuberculosis.

Narragansetts were enthusiastic consumers of fish and shellfish prevalent around Narragansett Bay. This might be expected while comparing it with European medieval reluctance to eat shellfish – even, apparently, near seaside residence. To Vikings, of course, fish was a staple food. The trait seems unusual in typical Amerind societies which seldom lived in a seaside mode. It compares, however, with the remarkable taboo among the Apaches to avoid eating anything that lived underwater.

A new and interesting (June,2002) item has been introduced on <plain talk> page which is related to the fundamental issue of tuberculosis remission.  This concerns a Lakota (Sioux) woman name Madonna Swan who also contributes in her story information concerning Native American customs and how they differed from Narragansett social practices.

We have tried to show that that generally the Amerind before 1492 was extremely individualistic and democratic.  Most tribes would not take action unless there was general agreement among them and that war chiefs could be censured and deposed if losses were excessive - that peace chiefs could be deposed or abandoned if the tribe met misfortune, calamity, or poor hunting.  The result of this was that if chiefs wanted to maintain their position, they had to make constant effort at appeasement of their followers.  One way was to demonstrate generosity by the practice of giving away goods and food.  This was so prevalent that it was often said that early explorers could identify the chief by the simple expedient of looking for the plainest and and poorest man in the village and the virtually always this was a male with only few exceptions.  The practice was only recorded late in history in the Northwest coastal tribes of Washington and Oregon where the occurrance was termed "Potlatch".  This - it continues today - sometimes impoverished the leaders of the tribes.  Madonna Swan described the practice in several places in her narrative and, indeed, did it once herself when she had become an influential person on the Cheyenne reservation in South Dakota.  She termed it "give-aways" and was for the purpose of maintaining position although one woman did it when she married.  These descriptions bolster my opinion that this social phenomena was near universal among Amerinds across the Americas.  One can even detect, if not prove it among the great civilizations of central Mexico in the person of Montezuma and that most, by far, of the tribes were at least overtly male dominated with females generally remaining passive in political issues.

Narragansetts differed in many respects as this page attempts to demonstrate.  For one thing, the chiefs were acquisitive and demonstrated their wealth by display of their shell money called "Wampum" both upon their own persons and their spouses and the fact that their residences were larger and more opulent than the commoners. (The Indian elsewhere, even today, does not even recognize that there should be two classes.  Every man is his own man - everyone has the right to speak at councils.)

The fact that Narragansetts had not only some, but numerous female chiefs is also highly significant in our minds.  It might be noted that this trait was also common among the Vikings/Northmen and could well be, as we believe,  a holdover from a past invasion by males maintaining their strong culture and who intermarried with Native Americans.

Apropos of "Wampum(peague) - a Narragansett word - further study finds wampum in other tribes almost universally of glass beads and these glass beads must have been European, therefore post 1492.  Therefore, it is my contention that Narragansetts might well have been the only Native Americans who not only manufactured money, but also regulated it over a wide area inclusive of other tribes.  Not only was it standardized by width and length, in the earliest days of contact it actually had a rate of exchange with English coinage.  This attribute is a remarkable advance compared with other Native tribes and might be expected to be the result of a culture experienced in trade and commerce which, of course, the Vinland Voyagers were an established part.

Again, the reader is cautioned that this information is not offered in the sense of improving a weak argument but simply to add to an already strong one provided in "Proofpage".   The above is some of that which intrigued the settlers of Rhode Island and led some of them to believe that their Amerind neighbors had originated in Europe.  A few are merely suggestive, but certainly the several genetic anomalies as white skin and wavy hair, their hierarchal social structure, capital and corporal punishment by "upper classes" upon "lower castes", land use practices, nautical and military advancements all point strongly towards a background not shared by other Native Americans in the New World.  This discussion is not original with this writer - it was a prevalent view in Rhode Island's own colonial era, something simply recovered from forgotten and overlooked sources by this writer.  And this is not all; following pages contain information concerning the language of the Narragansetts with some truly astonishing factors that intrigue but have little significance to the historian until development of the above.

Frederick N. Brown        copyright 1999          Glendale, Arizona

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